Vocabulary Parent Letter Essay Example for Free

Vocabulary Parent Letter EssayVocabulary words and knowledge are critical in recital comprehension and vitally important that new and young readers develop a large word bank and effective lexicon learning strategies. That organism said, we lead have an emphasis on vocabulary words in our classroom this year.There are several effective vocabulary learning strategies that we will be using in the classroom, I encourage you to employ these strategies at home assisting in the reading comprehension and vocabulary development of your young reader. stiff Vocabulary Learning StrategiesPre-teaching Vocabulary Word teaching your child unfamiliar words prior to the reading experience. An adult should preview the reading material watch over unfamiliar words then define and discuss the words. This provides understanding of the word for the child as intumesce as establishing connotation. It also gives the adult feedback on how well the child understands the word.Repeated Exposure to Words The more we are exposed to a word, the stronger our understanding become. A child needs to hear and affair a word several times before it becomes part of their vocabulary. Provide multiple opportunities for the child to use a new word in written and speak form.Keyword Method Like pre-teaching, the keyword method rather than having a child remember the definition, it encourages the adult to give a word clue to help them understand the word. The subject behind the keyword method is to create an easy cognitive link to the words meaning that the reader screw access efficiently during a reading experience.Root Analysis Many English words are derived from Latin or Greek roots. They contain a core root or use prefixes or suffixes. Adults, when working with the student should focus on the commonly occurring roots, prefixes and suffixes. When a reader is able to break down unfamiliar words into their prefixes, suffixes and roots they croupe begin to determine their meanings.Restruct uring Reading Material This strategy is particularly effective for struggling readers improving their vocabulary. Sometimes grade level materials contain too many an(prenominal) unfamiliar words. Adults can restructure the material. Portions of the difficult words can be replaced with easier synonyms to help the reader understand the overall text. Also, particularly challenging words can easily be looked up while reading the text.Taking a few minutes to read with your child, using these strategies will truly aid their vocabulary development and reading comprehension for years to come. Lets work together as a team to ensure that your child becomes an independent, lifelong learner.

Educators and their Perception on Children Essay Example for Free

Educators and their Perception on Children EssayStudies reveal that there has been an change magnitude degree of childhood thought-provoking behavior. On a survey made by Joseph et al (2003) as cited from Strain and Joseph (2004) revealed that 73% of educators perceived that children with challenging behaviors has been increasing. More importantly, educators have also been implyed by such an increase of challenging behaviors as 70% of them claimed that children with such make them feel stressed, while 60% said that it has a negative effect on their job satisfaction.Since challenging behavior has been increasing at present, such also has a negative effect on teacher turnovers. In relation with it, it has also been viewed that such a character of children has a significant relationship to the educators burn out and amount of complaints that they receive from the parents. In consequence, the schools upper administration, tend to squeeze their budgets for a more costly approach a nd on the other hand, educators are being questioned of their efficiency.During the 1960s educators believed that the source of difficulties in their class primarily emerges from children with problem behaviors. As such, they tend to see them as bad apples that could be removed in order to maintain a more favorable environment (Long et al, 1965) as cited from Strain and Joseph (2004). In fact studies of Joseph et al on 2003 revealed that 40% of educators reveal that they have removed students from their class for the past 12 months.Another problem that the educators experience is that they take the approach to children with challenging behavior as apparent(a) on their expression of frustration, anger, inadequacy, fear, guilt and stress (Strain and Joseph, 2004). In addition with this, respondents also reveal that they felt overwhelmed, undervalued and disrespected (Strain and Joseph, 2004). These feelings are clear indications that there are problems that the teacher unavoidably t o address.The educator needs to cope with these kinds of feelings in order to provide more self-control and rational thinking to be able to effectively address their students challenging behavior. Odom et al (1990) as cited from Strain and Joseph (2004) also found out that a teachers openness to adopt a new approach towards teaching children could also affect the rate in which children could go through with the problems that he or she is experiencing.It has also been perceived that the amount of work that the teachers have to handle could also impact how the mode the handle children with challenging behavior. For teachers who have a lot of priorities and paperwork, to ask them to do one more thing further adds to their frustration. Teachers also argue that they dont have enough training in order to deal with this type of children. These situations in addition to their relatively low wages are also ascertain factors of their negative attitude towards children with challenging behav ior.

Labelling Theory by Becker: Summary and Evaluation

Labelling Theory by Becker Summary and EvaluationPart of the assumption about the way policing and the law works is that punishing criminal demeanour has a deterrent effect. Whatever controversies surround the efficacy of deterrence and they are myriad it seemed hard for many early theorists to believe that punishing criminal conduct does any actual harm to society. What labelling theorists introduced was the idea that, ironically, the singling out of those who had transgressed societys laws actually perpetuated the behaviours it was intended to curb (Lilly, Cullen Ball, 2002). The idea that the way in which shames are socially constructed might pack important consequences has, however, proved controversial and sparked considerable debate. This essay looks first at labelling hypothesis and then moves on to examine the possibleness more than critically and tax its reach in rationalizeing crime and deviance.Becker (1973) clearly lays out labelling supposition in his book Ou tsiders Studies in the Sociology of Deviance. He explains that the interactionist perspective sees crime as an infraction of the rules created by society. It then seeks to find the reasons that a person infringed those rules within both their personality and in the their social and economic environment. Becker (1973) believed that this placed the wrong emphasis on where the parameters for crime are set. It is non in the quality of a persons action the deviant act or, as it were, a deviant person but rather in the imposition of the label of deviance by society. It is society that prescribes which acts are lawful and which acts are not lawful and, that act of successfully applying the label illegal or deviant to a person, has a number of important consequences.One assumption often made, once a person has been labelled a deviant, is that they fit into a homogenous category. Becker (1973) repugns that this assumption is often made by researchers in criminology looking for a root cau se or at least some vulgarity in deviance and crime. This assumption, though, is not correct. Some quite a little may not be possessed of transgressed societys laws and yet are, through the failure of the appropriate systems, still labelled deviant. Others may have transgressed but have not been caught in their transgression these people remain unlabelled. As a settlement of this analysis, Becker (1973) is most interested in how people come to be labelled deviant rather than their particular social or personal circumstances.This attack on the absolutist personality of deviance or criminal behaviour highlights a number of variables within the system of labelling. What is labelled a crime varies from one prison term to another at one time there is crackdown on, for example, drug offences, and the investigation and penalties are stepped up. At another time there may be much more leniency. Another variable is the nature of the person caught breaking the law. The example is drawn by Becker (1973) of the difference between a middle class person and someone from the lower classes evidence is cited to press out that it is the middle class person who is more likely to avoid prosecution. Similarly, crimes committed by individuals tend to be prosecuted by the criminal law, while crimes committed by corporations prosecuted by the civil law. These distinctions emphasise the fact that criminality is not an independent quality of a person, but is intimately related to other peoples perceptions or, alternatively in the modern terminology, to crimes social construction.After the initial instance in which a person is labelled as a criminal, Becker (1973) asserts that a number of things are of course attendant. To understand the results of labelling it is useful to make a distinction introduced by Edwin Lemert. Lemert (1951) introduced the idea that deviance could be seen as first primary and then secondary. Primary deviancy refers to the home where a person commits a criminal offence because of sociocultural and psychological circumstances. At this stage, however, the person does not see themselves as deviant, merely as a person who has temporarily strayed from the straight and narrow. Having been caught committing a criminal offence this person is then subjected to societys vilification and labelling through the criminal arbiter system. As a result of this the person then has to find a method of dealing with this clash between the way they think about themselves and the way other people this instant view them. This is normally dealt with by accepting the label with all its meaning and consequences attached.Lilly, Cullen Ball (2002) explain that labelling theorists used the idea of a self-fulfilling prophecy (developed by Merton, 1968) to explain the effect of labelling. Falsely applying the label of criminal to a person leads to them being seen as morally reprehensible in themselves, even though, at that point, this is probably not true. In peoples minds, the fact that a person has committed a criminal offence leads to them being thought of as a criminal, which again leads to them being seen only in this context, above any other. The police, seeing that person as more likely to transgress in the future, will be more likely to cry them to investigate further crimes. A person is socially isolated from their non-criminal friends and probably incarcerated with others who have been labelled criminals this all serves to reinforce the label. It is this constant pressure from people close to them that encourages those who have committed a criminal offence to accept the label of criminal themselves along with all that it entails. The effect is that, perversely, that crime is perpetuated because of the effectiveness of the systems of criminal justice the label of criminal becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy (Williams, 2004).Labelling theory has been criticised on a number of grounds. Many researchers have attempted to brin g empirical evidence to hold in on labelling theory. Gove (1975), for example, found no evidence of the influence of negative sanctions on sustained criminal careers. Sherman Berk (1984) compared, in a field experiment, those who had been arrested for domestic violence, with those who had not. They found that those who had been arrested did, in fact, show a reduced level of violence compared to those who had not. Foster, Dinitz Reckless (1972) found that self-reports of problems amongst apprehended boys did not affect the relationship between deviance and sanctions. Other evidence, however, has back up the contentions of labelling theory. Kaplan Johnson (2001) describe some of this evidence. Palamara, Cullen Gersten (1986) found that juvenile delinquency was affected both directly and through other interactions by contact with the police, as well as mental health services. Importantly, the level of the effect was found to be different depending on the type of behaviour that wa s being measured.Kaplan Johnson (2001) assert that part of the explanation for the involved empirical results may be methodological problems. For example, measuring levels of delinquency before and after intervention by the criminal justice system is extremely problematic. Kaplan Johnson (2001) argue that, in the research carried out by Foster et al. (1972), it is possible the boys were trying to protect their self-image which was why they didnt report any problems to researchers. Similarly, though, the results of Palamara et al. (1986), which relied on the opinions of mothers and teachers, might simply deliberate the effects that labelling has on labelling obviously a circular argument.Gove (1975) argues that part of the problem with testing labelling theory is that it is simply untestable in many of the ways that researchers have applied. deflexion from empirical evidence, researchers have also criticised labelling theory on theoretical grounds. Gove (1975) argues that ther e is no solid evidence that being labelled and then committing crimes is a self-fulfilling prophecy. In addition, Gove (1975) criticises labelling theory on the grounds that it is has difficulty explaining all the different types of deviant behaviour. Plummer (1979) characterises this as a problem with explaining how primary deviance occurs in the first place. Labelling theory, therefore, has a particular problem with paedophilia, for example, which is generally thought to result from abnormal psychology. For this reason it cannot be largely affected by labelling and self-fulfilling prophecies.More phenomenological problems are pointed to in labelling theory by, amongst others, Philipson Roche (1971). They point out that labelling theory makes many perhaps unwarranted assumptions. The way that society reacts to the labelling of criminals is mostly assumed by the original researchers, and hardly investigated. Theoretically, there is especial(a) linkage between the processes that oc cur at an everyday level and how these translate into the societal reaction. There is too much reliance on ideas that are deemed parkland sense and also on anecdotal evidence. Plummer (1979) states that labelling theory tends to minimise, or not to address, the question of power and the effects this has on the criminal justice system. A more general criticism is its compatibility with social determinism, the idea that people may have no choice, or at least little choice, in their behaviour. These ideas are also linked to moral criticisms, that labelling theory excludes the moral aspects of crime choosing to commit a criminal act is a moral choice.In defence of labelling theory, and the criticisms that have been levelled at it, Becker (1973) ascribes a more limited role to its applicability. Becker (1973) argues that labelling theory was not intended to explain why people commit crimes, but the focus of it is on the synergistic elements. It is the interactional elements in explaini ng crime that had previously been ignored or minimised labelling theory was an attempt to highlight the fact that crime cannot be explained without considering the effects that people have on each other. It is clear that many criticisms of labelling theory are based on different conceptions. Indeed, modern theorists now often see labelling theory as split into three different parts. Davies Tanner (2003) splits it into the strain that concentrates on secondary deviance, the strain that focuses on social psychological effects and, finally, the strain that examines the effect of labelling on life chances.In conclusion, what many proponent of labelling theory claim is that it attempts to demystify acts of crime and deviancy. Rather than seeing them as discrete and recognisable categories that are somehow other from the normal law-abiding citizens, it sees them as part of a fluid process within which all members of society, or a collective, exert some influence. It acknowledges a cont inuum and attempts to describe the processes involved in moving along that continuum. Critics of labelling theory have attacked with both theoretical arguments and empirical evidence. As can clearly be seen, though, labelling theory is difficult to test empirically and, perhaps, with the defence provided by Becker (1973) is impossible to test this way. Criticisms of theoretical aspects are somewhat muddied by different understandings of what labelling theory constitutes. condescension this, it is possible that more detailed and precise research could provide a clearer empirical result whether positive or negative. ReferencesReferencesBecker, H. S. (1973) Outsiders studies in the sociology of deviance. New York Free Press.Davies, S., Tanner, J. (2003) The immense Arm of the Law Effects of Labeling on Employment. The Sociological Quarterly, 44(3) 385404.Philipson, M., Roche, M. R. (1971) Phenomenology, Sociology and the Study of Deviance. In Carson, W.G., Wiles, P. (Eds.) The Socio logy of Crime and Delinquency in Britain, vol 2. Oxford Martin Robertson.Foster, J. D., Dinitz, S., Reckless, W. C. (1972) Perceptions of stigma followingpublic intervention for tumble-down behavior. Social Problems, 20, 202-209Gove, W. R. (1975). The labeling of deviance Evaluating a perspective. New York Halsted Press.Kaplan, H. B., Johnson, R. J. (2001) Social Deviance Testing a General Theory. New York Springer.Plummer, K. (1979) Misunderstanding Labelling Perspectives. In Downes, D. Rock, P. (Eds.) Deviant Interpretations problems in criminological theory. Oxford Oxford University PressLemert, E. (1951) Social pathology A systematic approach to the theory ofsociopathic behavior. New York McGraw-Hill.Lilly, J., Cullen, F., Ball, R. (2002) Criminological theory Context and consequences (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA Sage.Merton, R. K. (1968) Social theory and social structure. New York Free Press.Palamara, F., Cullen, F. T., Gersten, J. C. (1986). The effect of police and mentalh ealth intervention on juvenile deviance Specifying contingencies in the impact of formal reaction. ledger of Health and Social Behavior, 27, 90-105.Sherman, L. W., Berk, R. A. (1984) The specific deterrent effects of arrest for domestic assault. American Sociological Review, 49, 261-272.Williams, K. S. (2004) Textbook on Criminology. Oxford Oxford University Press.

Criticism of Action Research

Criticism of march ResearchThe use of exercise seek in higher education is growing (Mertler, 2006). Action look for involves a systematic inquiry wherein educators can utilize their noesis as practitioners to change and improve educational practices (Kemmis, 2009 Craig, 2009). By systematically and intentionally studying problems within the educational community, they not only alter to knowledge production but to meaningful reforms as intimately. Action look into is defined as a meditative process of progressive problem solving led by individuals working with others in teams or as part of a community of practice to improve the way they address issues and solve problems (Riel, 2010). The aim of bodily process look for is to understand practice and to articulate a philosophy of practice which improves practice (McCutcheon Jung, as cited in Herr, Anderson, Herr, 2005). As a look for design, pull through research is relatively new. Despite its recent popular application, on that point is still debate on where activeness research really falls as to its nature of inquiry (Ary, Jacobs, Razavieh Sorensen, 2009). Some research experts associate it more than with the qualitative tradition, while others assert that its concrete application in research has showed that it relies more on quantitative inquiry (Burns, 2007). However, literature would suggest that fill research possesses current overall characteristics that ar different from other research approaches. These are conundrum-solving is highlighted in the scientific study (Pine, 2008 Koshy, 2005Methodological tools are not rigid and can be modified to suit the demands of the research situation (Cooke Cox, 2005)The research is process is cyclical (Schmuck, 2006 Riel, 2010)There is leaning toward practitioners as research workers (Mertler, 2006 Walter, 2009)No great attempts at objectivity are intended (Kock, 2005)The inquiry has a social dimension (Walter, 2009, IISD, 2010).What sets operati on research apart from other research approaches is its cyclical nature. This means that as a research method, it proceeds with a chain of steps repeatedly. Unlike traditional research, action research does not end upon the determination of findings and the formulation of conclusions on the contrary, this sparks a renewal of the research process. Hence, action research follows what Riel (2010) calls progressive problem solving (see Figure 1).In the entire research process, there could be triple cycles and multiple foci of the study. In one research cycle, an action research proceeds in five general steps 1. identifying an area of focus 2. Developing an action proposal 3. collecting info 4. analyzing and interpreting entropy 5. reflecting (Herr, Anderson, Herr, 2005, p. 15). Beginning with the identification of the problem, the researcher/s come up with research questions and identifies the type of data trained. Types of data entangled in action research can be quantitative or numerical, qualitative or descriptive, but usually both (Creswell, 2005). After data collection, the researcher/s interpret and analyze data. Conclusions are the drawn followed by a period of reflection which researchers engage in to be able come up with another device of action to improve practice. This goes on until the problem identified is solved or objectives are met (Koshy, 2005).Another grievous characteristic of action research is that it is value-laden. It rejects neutrality and instead, situates its inquiry in a setting where there are conflicting values or power differentials. It challenges traditional notions of power and values and investigates a problem by analyzing day-to-day realities of the people or community involved. Still another important characteristic of action research is its reflexivity. Reflexivity is essential to action research because it aims to interrogate and examine received proposals for change or improvement by analyzing who benefits of action s implemented in the end (Craig, 2009).Since the foundation of action research by adjudge pioneer Kurt Lewin, several approaches have emerged and albeit similar in purpose, differ in method and steps toward inquiry (Craig, 2009). Reviewed are three action research methodologies that have been used by researchers in higher education and other disciplines to come up with solutions to pressing problems mulish, participatory, and teacher action research. A discussion of advantages and disadvantages of action research is also discussed. practical(a) action research interoperable action research focuses on a specific research question with the aim of astir(p) practice (Schmuck, 2006). This is sometimes referred to as practical-deliberative action where the researcher (an orthogonalr) collaborates with practitioners in identifying research problems, its causes, and possible forms of intervention. Kemmis (2009) defines it as action research which sharpens individual practical reasoning (p 76). Problem identification is done after dialogue between research and practitioner until consensus is reached. In this sense, the end of practical action research is to improve practice through the application of the personal wisdom of the participants (Grundy, as cited in Pine, 2008, p. 76).Practical action research was influenced by Lewins research within organizations which relied heavily on group dynamics, subject field theory, and T-groups. While practical action research works toward the improvement of practice, it takes a conservative stance and works in reforming the status quo without addressing power structures or differentials.Practical action research is also a vehicle toward generating practical knowledge (Manfra, 2009). Supporters of practical action research believe that practical knowledge is the most important form of knowledge in teaching (Koshy, 2005) and that the focus of action research must be on teachers issues and problems because they produce knowledge helpful to them in redefining their profession.Practical action research is more concerned with examining real classrooms and real schools (Manfra, 2009, p. 2). In the context of higher education, practical action research aims to help teachers become die practitioners. Because Conducting research has helped teachers we know to consolidate new knowledge, learn about new issues, and develop new teaching methods and strategies (p. 176). Proponents of practical action research emphasize the practicality of action research for teachers as they strive to become better practitioners. Since practical inquiry is more likely to respond to the immediacy of the knowledge needs teachers confront in everyday practice and to be foundational for formal research by providing new questions and concerns, (Cochran-Smith Lytle, as cited in Mertler, 2006, p. 43) practical action research is deemed to be the more trustworthy methodology for education practitioners.There are criticisms on the authenti city of practical action research (Kemmis, 2009). Some have accused practical action research as straying from the unique spirit of action research because it was influenced by techniques and inputs of outsiders (Pine, 2008). In effect, it ran the risk of research questions being externally formulated and issues which were not reflective of real sentiments and problems of practitioners (Kemmis, 2009). Practical action research is often associated with testing the potency of practices or the applicability of findings conducted elsewhere to local settings. While in general, these studies may contribute to the improvement of practice, practical action research becomes vulnerable to being exploited to legitimize reputations of outsiders reputations than being applied meaningfully in practice (Ary et al., 2009).Participatory action research ( equivalence)While practical action research is deliberative in purpose, participatory action research takes on a more emancipator role. conventio nal research seeks only in the investigation of phenomenon whereas the critical psychoanalysis is entrenched in PAR. While practical action research only describes classrooms and schools, PAR is more concerned with how to change structures and in the transformation of society. PAR promotes emancipatory praxis in the participating practitioners that is, it promotes a critical consciousness which exhibits itself in political as well as practical action to promote change (Grundy, as cited in Manfra, 2009, p. 4). A primary aim of PAR is to transforming educational theory and practice toward emancipatory ends and indeed raising fundamental questions about curriculum, teachers roles, and the ends as well as the means of schooling (Cochran-Smith Lytle, as cited in Manfra, 2009, p. 5). As a result, PAR has two overarching objectives (Cooke Cox, 2005) companionship production and action for the benefit of a group of people through study, research, education, and sociopolitical action.Emp owerment of people by enabling them to construct and use their own knowledge.The signalize elements in PAR are participation and action (IISD, 2009). These elements are the foundation of the PAR method. With action, research entails beyond merely seeking information but having that action compute that enables positive change. With participation, research should be a participatory process with equal and collaborative involvement groups or communities of interest. Hence, unlike practical action research, PAR does away with process consultancy or the use of outsider experts going into communities and examining, theorizing, and proposing solutions for problems (Kemmis, 2009). The research topic, questions, and solutions must emerge from the communities themselves.Practical action research is not intended to be participatory because the aim is generally extractive meaning, researchers retain power over process. PAR on the other hand, seeks at empowering the community of interest by ope ning up the entire research process to their participation. Practical action research is collaborative and is not shy on taking outside partners in planning, data gathering, and data analysis phase. PARs research goals are politicized and aims to illuminate on how social, economic, and political constraints affect the marginalized and powerless sectors in society (GDRC, 2009).Teacher action researchTeacher action research is research that is done by teachers for themselves (Johnson, as cited in Mertler, 2006, p. 72). This type of action research enables teachers to make their own classrooms, their methods of instruction and assessments the focus of the study in order to inform and improve practice. Teacher action research benefits teachers by allowing them to understand their work better and from there, come up with ways to improve their effectiveness in the classroom. As a teacher-centered approach to action research, teacher-action research acknowledges first and foremost that the teacher is the most knowledgeable person when it comes to conditions on the ground and recognizes their expertness in carrying out research for the improvement of educational processes and outcomes.There are several motivations for adopting teacher action researchThis approach respects and gives significant to the arrangement of the teacher about the problems and issues at the classroom level. Simply put, it acknowledges the teacher as a local expert who has more knowledge about classroom issues than outside experts or consultants (Mertler, 2006).By acquiring data about their own classrooms and practices, teachers are better situated to reflect upon them and are in a better come in to implement policies or measures that will enhance their effectiveness.Teacher action research is a feasible way in improving instructional practice and enhancing the dexterous environment among educators.Educators are uniquely positioned to evaluate the classroom situation, implement plans of action , and evaluate them afterwards (Creswell, 2005).Methods, data collection, and analysisThe three forms of action research do not differ in their methodology but in the assumptions made and participants worldviews that influence the choice of methodology to be used in implementing the action research (Grundy, as cited in Manfra, 2009). The method of action research involves four general stages of collectively 1) planning, 2) acting, 3) sight and 4) reflecting. This phase leads to another cycle of action, in which the plan is revised, and further acting, observing and reflecting undertaken systematically to work towards solutions to problems whether of a practical or emancipatory nature.Action research accommodates all types of data collected through various techniques. Action research regular(a) considers it important to collect multiple measures on the variables of interest in a given study. It allows and in fact, encourages the researcher to triangulate the collected data for gr eater research credibility. There are four main categories of data collection in action research (Craig, 2009 Mertler, 2006 Cooke Cox, 2005)Observations recorded through fieldnotes or journals to describe in elaborate what is seen and heard.Interview data through interviews or surveys.Existing documents or records such(prenominal) as lesson plans, student portfolios, school newspapers, minutes of meetings, attendance records, etc.Quantitative measures such as ratings, checklists, tests, or scoring rubrics.selective information analysis in action research occurs beginning data collection and afterwards. Most quantitative researchers begin analyzing data after all data is gathered. Qualitative researchers begin analyzing data at the start of the data collection process. Action research combines both processes. Johnson (as cited in Mertler, 2006) suggests that as you collect your data, analyze them by looking for themes, categories or patterns that emerge (p. 87). Analyzing data allo ws other foci to emerge and influences the research on what other data to look for. Data analysis is not really as exhaustive or as complex in action research as it is with traditional research. However, action research lately has been influenced to adopt more quantitative analysis in order to establish integrity and credibility in the findings. Coding, content analysis, and other qualitative forms of analysis are sometimes buffered with inferential statistics to boost credibility (Sagor, 2005).Critique of action researchAction research is applied, empowering, collaborative, democratic and emancipatory. Unlike other research methods, it offers practical solutions toward positive change in practice and in society. It also has its flaws. Its disadvantages includeSubjectivity. One of the main criticisms of action research is that when left unchecked, results are laden with subjectiveness (Kock, 2005). There is a tendency for the researcher to be over-involved to the extent that persona l biases come into play in the analysis of the findings.Vulnerability to pressure. Another risk factor in doing action research is that the researchers are often subordinates in an organizational setting. When the researcher is an insider in an organization, power relations and differentials may complicate the conduct. Researchers might be pressure or coerced to alter the findings to suit organizational objectives (Noffke Somekh, 2005.Time consuming. The cyclical research process in action research is aimed at understanding and action. The sign research question is rough and may be refined thereafter depending on initial findings. Critics of action research question the fuzzy methodology in action research and the equally fuzzy answers that it gets (Walter, 2009). The redefinition of the research question and the refining of methodology takes time, making the entire research process time-exhaustive and complex. In particular, PAR is inborn undefined in terms of end date. There is no clear timeline when the research is stopped because technically, it stops only upon the resolution of the problem. In terms of knowledge production, PAR is unpredictable and is unlikely to be included in referred journals or get competitive funding (GDRC, 2009).Proposed action research processDespite acknowledged weaknesses, action research is still a viable tool among education leaders in influencing change within the organization. I propose a collaborative teacher action research to enhance professional identity of mid-career faculty leaders through mentoring activities. Enhancing the professional identity of teachers is important especially as they novelty into later leadership roles. Like any organization, teachers need to be part of an active and supportive community to guide them in the process of transition. Some teachers in my local setting are ill-prepared to take on leadership roles. Mentoring has been found to improve self-awareness, skills in collaboration, leadersh ip skills, sense of community and commitment to the teaching profession.Since this is a collaborative teacher action research, I will find other teacher-researchers willing to work with me to address the problem of leadership preparation among mid-career educators. We will need to establish understanding about action research as a way to improve leadership capabilities among teachers. Since this is a collaborative research, workload and responsibilities will be divided through consensus and everyone will be a co-researcher to the project. The research action process will proceed in eight steps (Mertler, 2006)Identify the problem (lack of leadership preparation among mid-career teachers)Gather information (done through informal interviews)Review related literature (research on possible solutions)Develop a research plan (meet with co-researchers and come up with a plan)Implement the plan and collect the data (through questionnaires, interviews)Analyze the data (content analysis, descr iptive statistics)Develop an action plan (plan a mentoring system to solve the problem)Share and communicate results

Background And Pathophysiology Of Schizophrenia Psychology Essay

Background And Pathophysiology Of schizophrenic disorder Psychology EssaySchizophrenia is a severe chronic psycho disorder associated with the brain and is characterised by symptoms classified into ternion major categories positive, negative and cognitive symptoms. Positive symptoms include hallucinations, delusions and thought disorder. Negative symptoms consist of social withdrawal and flattening of emotional responses. In addition to this, deficits in cognitive function such as attention and memory be also often present in schizophrenic patients together with anxiety and depression. (Rang, 2007) (Lewis J A Lieberman 2000)Studies pull in shown several neurotransmitter systems such as serotonin, glutamate and dopamine to be involved in processes leading to the expression of the symptoms experienced in schizophrenia. Among these, the dopamine theory has standard the nigh attention and it will be the focal point of this research.Serotonin, an essential neurotransmitter, has i ts place in explaining schizophrenia by trying to explain the elements of the disorder which were initially unexplained. This consisted of the negative symptoms and the actions of antipsychotic agents. Its role was recognised in the 1950s when it was discovered how similar serotonin was to LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide). LSD causes psychotic symptoms as it competes with serotonin and occupies its sense organ sites. Atypical antipsychotics as well as blocking dopamine sensory receptors, also act as 5-HT receptor antagonists. This hypothesis was confirmed when typical antipsychotics were combined with a 5-HT2 antagonist such as ritanserin. This resulted in relief of negative symptoms and extrapyramidal spatial relation effects. (Sadock, 2000)Glutamate has also been implicated in schizophrenia. This hypothesis is derived from evidence victimisation PCP, a glutamate NMDA receptor antagonist. Administration produces psychotic symptoms and cognitive dysfunction in healthy subjects ( Krystal et al. 1994) and negative cognitive symptoms in patients with schizophrenia. (Lahti et al. 1995) Phencyclidine, ketamine and dizocilpine, also glutamate NMDA receptor antagonists, provide psychotic symptoms in humans. Studies throw also shown that in that respect is reduction in glutamate receptor density and glutamate concentration in post-mortem brains of schizophrenic patients. (Rang 2007)The most common theory relating to schizophrenia is the dopamine one. The first formulation of the dopamine hypothesis suggests that excess mesolimbic dopamine is the reason for the positive symptoms. The evidence that this idea was based on included amphetamine cry which change magnitude synaptic dopamine leading to delusions (Laruelle et al. 1996) and that all antipsychotic medicines block dopamine D2 receptors.As this theory implied excess dopamine is liable for positive symptoms, what is responsible for the negative and cognitive symptoms? Well, research has shown that negative and cognitive symptoms are the result of deficient dopamine in the pre fontal cortex due to D1 receptor dysfunction (K. L. Davis et al. 1991) at that place have been operational definitions of schizophrenia genuine in an attempt the reliability of the diagnosis The outside(a) Classification of Diseases (ICD-10) and The American Psychiatric Associations Diagnostic and Statistical mode (DSM-IV-TR) and both contain lists of criteria but also insist that symptoms must have persisted for 6 months.PICTURESchizophrenia usually presents itself in late adolescence or in early adult life (Kirkbride et al. 2006) with males having an earlier onset than females. In the UK, the mean age of first admission is about 22 years for men and 27 years for women. (Castle R M Murray 1991)Females also tend to have fewer negative symptoms and a better outcome than males.According to leading experts in this disorder, they have found that it is cause my many factors. One major factor is brokertics, and sc hizophrenia occurs in 10% of people who have parents, brother or sister (first degree relatives) with the disorder. plurality who have grandparents, cousins or aunts and uncles (second degree relatives) also develop this disorder a lot more than the general public. (Kendler et al. 1993) Most seriously, the risk is at its greatest for a person who has a twin with schizophrenia. (Irving Gottesman 1991)PICTURESeveral genes are related with the risk of schizophrenia but preceding(prenominal)ly it was believed in that respect is no particular gene that is responsible for the disease itself. Studies have shown that people with schizophrenia also have many rare gene mutations which involve many genes and disrupt the victimization of the brain. tho in recent times, new research has shown in that respect may be several susceptible genes. One such gene is DISC1 which could be linked to the development and intervention of schizophrenia. DISC1 plays a key role in the growth of individual neurons. Mutated Disrupted in Schizophrenia (DISC1) gene is seen to disrupt the growth and development of cells in the brain. When DISC1 levels were felld in mice, cells in the brain failed to divide and the mice developed symptoms that mimicked schizophrenia in humans. ( source IMPORTANT ONE)Other than genes, environmental factors are probably important in the development of schizophrenia. These include exposure to infections, immunocompromised, stress and being in contact with toxic chemicals during childhood may slightly alter brain development. (Marcel ET AL REFERENCE 1999)Chlorpromazine was the first drug discovered to have antipsychotic properties, followed by haloperidol which was widely prescribed. This is an example of typical first generation medical specialtys and produced D2 receptor blockade. By 1980, second generation atypical drugs were out, most notably clozapine which was seen to be more potent in hideing chronic patients. These had the benefits of also reducing negative symptoms and constitutional side effects.Pharmaceutical companies in the 1990s started to take advantage of clozapine and develop drugs without its side effects and olanzapine is another popular atypical drug.In 2005, there was a study done known as the CATIE study, in the USA, comparing the effectiveness of antipsychotic drugs in clinical settings. It was seen that there were high rates of discontinuation 64-82% over 18 months, due to patients not being able to tolerate side effects. Lack of efficacy was also found for all antipsychotic drugs in the study, although olanzapine was most effective (terms of discontinuation rates) than other drugs in the study. Despite this, olanzapine was associated with greater weight gain and increase glycosylated haemoglobin, cholesterol and triglycerides. These changes could have serious implications such as development of metabolic syndrome. (Jeffrey A. Lieberman et al. 2005)So why use or develop Chinese herb extracts as a therapeutic tool for schizophrenia?Although antipsychotic medication is still the foundation for the treatment in schizophrenia, it still leaves some people with unbearable side effects and distressing symptoms.The most common side effects are Parkinsonism, dystonia and akathisia and are most common with haloperidol and fluphenazine. (Schillevoort et al. 2001) (Levinson et al. 1990) Dystonic spasms affect the neck muscles tongue and face, and occur within a few days of treatment and are frequent at high doses. Akathisia is the restless leg syndrome and is characterised by great urges to move and difficulty in sitting still. Anti-cholinergic drugs can relieve these symptoms they should not be disposed routinely as they also cause side effects such as blurred vision, constipation, dry mouth and euphoria. It is also important to remember that not all patients will get side effects from taking antipsychotics. Another long term side effect is tardive dyskinesia which is sulky irregular movements p articularly in the regions of the mouth, lips and protrusion of the tongue. Approximately 5% of the patients on antipsychotic medication developing this each year, but there is evidence that the incidence may be declining with increasing use of atypical antipsychotics. (Tarsy Baldessarini 2006)Due to the side effects, herbal medicines are commonly utilize for psychiatric purposes in both the developed and developing countries. (Walter Rey 1999) Studies have shown that some Chinese herbal medicines are effective for psychosis and that if used in conjunction with western medication, they enhance antipsychotic efficacy and reduce adverse effects. Another important aspect is that, Chinese herbs may be more accessible, acceptable and cheaper than drugs already available.Chinese herbal medication includes whole kit and boodles, fungi, resins, animal and mineral substances which are given within a formula which typically consist of 4 to 12 herbs. Administration is in the form of decocti ons, pills, powders, tablets, phials and as standardized plant extracts.Chinese herbal medication has been known to treat schizophrenia for over 2000 years although the methods used in Traditional Chinese medicine to diagnose and treat schizophrenia differs from that used in western medicine. In western medicine, it is usually diagnosed by criteria such as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) or the International Classification of Diseases (ICD) but in Traditional Chinese Medication, its diagnosed by the Chinese Classification of Mental Disorder (CCMD).Figure shows the difference between diagnosing and treating Schizophrenia using traditional and Chinese herbal medicationTraditional Chinese medicine differentiates schizophrenia into syndromes which determine the course of treatment. Therefore if two people are to be diagnosed with schizophrenia could have different clinical features (syndromes) therefore will require different medications. Each syndrome has a specific herbal formulation, but patients typically have mixed clinical features therefore they require precise formulations made by adding or substituting herbs. (Rathbone et al. 2007)Hype or hope? Is there really a benefit of using Chinese herbs as a therapeutic tool of schizophrenia?There have been several clinical trials done using Chinese herbal medication in the treatment of schizophrenia. One of the earlier studies was done using Dang gui cheng qi tang as the herbal medication given to the treatment chemical group without the addition of the antipsychotic chlorpromazine which the defy group received. The setting was in a hospital and participants were divided into groups randomly. It was reported that no participants left the groups early and the result showed that the spheric state outcome not amendd /worse favoured the control group receiving chlorpromazine. (Rathbone et al. 2007) These results should be treated with caution given design limitations such as it being only conducted for 20 days, but nevertheless do not support that herbal medication should be used by itself for the treatment of schizophrenia.Further research and trials have been done which has incorporated using herbal medication together with an antipsychotic versus an antipsychotic alone. In 1997, Chinese herbal medications Dang gui cheng qi tang or xiao plus an antipsychotic was given to a treatment group compared to just the antipsychotic given to the control group. The allocation was randomized, lasted for 12 weeks and included hospital as well as community setting. The result showed that the treatment group scored significantly lower for the outcome of global state not improved/worse than the control group. (Rathbone et al. 2007)Global data score from the Clinical Global Impression scale (a rating scale measuring severity of symptoms, treatment response and efficacy of treatment) also favoured treatment groups that took the herbal medication plus antipsychotic. Ginkgo biloba was used with an antipsychotic for the treatment group in 1996 (Rathbone et al. 2007) and Shui zhi and Da huang were used with chlorpromazine. There were side effects associated with taking antipsychotics and taking herbal medications with antipsychotics showed that extra pyramidal side effects still arose. Constipation was nonetheless lower in the treatment group. (Rathbone et al. 2007)In 2001, Zhang et al did a study giving a treatment group Ginkgo biloba with haloperidol with the control group only receiving the latter. When compared, the study showed there was no difference between treatment group and control group when comparing negative symptoms and also when looking at Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale scores. However, the scale of positive symptoms did marginally favour the treatment group. (Rathbone et al. 2007)For all studies done in the past, we have to be aware(p) that application of Chinese herbal medication is based on syndrome differentiation with failure of applying this differentiat ion resulting in ineffective or harmful treatment. There is no concrete evidence that when given alone, Chinese herbal medications offer benefits which are equal or even greater than antipsychotic drugs. When the herbal drugs are used with antipsychotics, they may offer improvement in symptoms but as there is still limited evidence in regards to Chinese herbs and traditional Chinese medication, this go on must still be considered new and more investigation is needed.Stepholidine is an active ingredient of the Chinese herb Stephania intermedia Lo, and belongs to an alkaloid group tetra-hydroberberine. (S. X. Xu et al. 1989)Initial research had shown that Stepholidine decreased inception pressure without exerting any adverse effects on the heart as well as exhibiting analgesia and any sedating effects on the central sickening system. juvenile studies have shown stepholidine to be a pioneering drug in the treatment of schizophrenia because it is a dopamine D1 receptor agonist and a D2 receptor antagonist. Due to the pathogenesis of this disease suggests the dysfunction of D1 receptors in the medial prefrontal cortex, which is accompanied by hyperactivity of D2 receptors in subcortical regions such as ventral tegmental area (VTA) and the nucleus accumbens (NAc), when developing a antipsychotic drug should possess dual agonistic and antagonistic actions on the receptor. Stepholidine and its analogues tick these two important boxes.Stepholidine acts through D1 receptors to increase adenylyl cyclase activity and subsequent signalling pathways adjust by adenylyl cyclase might be responsible for the physiological responses, including rotational behaviour and changes in the firing activity of the neurons induced by Stepholidine.By contrast, Stepholidine inhibits both D2 auto-receptor talk terms feedback inhibition of dopamine containing neurons and D2 receptor mediated effects on target non dopamine containing neurons. (Guo-Zhang Jin et al. 2002)There are several s ymptoms related to schizophrenia and insomnia is one of the most common. This could be partly related to the over-activity of the dopaminergic system. There has been a study done to show whether stepholidine modulates sleep behaviours. This was done in mice and the sleep-wake profiles were observed. From this study it has been concluded that stepholidine significantly increased the come in of NREM sleep and prolonged the duration of NREM sleep episodes, with reduction in the amount of wakefulness. Stepholidine had no effect on either the amount of REM sleep. Because it maintains NREM sleep in mice, it is suggested that it has the potential to be also used in the treatment of insomnia. (Qiu et al. 2009)Figure 1 shows the dual action of Stepholidine. dopamine (DA)-containing neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) project to the nucleus accumbens (NAc) and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). The schizophrenia hypothesis suggests that D1 receptor dysfunction in the mPFC leads to the negative symptoms of schizophrenia and the D2 receptor hyperactivity in the sub-cortex nuclei leads to the positive symptoms of this disorder 1-4. The D1 receptor agonist effect of SPD in the mPFC is suggested to ameliorate the negative symptoms of schizophrenia, whereas the D2 receptor antagonist effect of SPD that predominates in the sub-cortex would improve the positive symptomsThe Stanley Medical Research Institute (SMRI) awarded a grant of Canadian $330,000 to Dr. Shitji Kapur and Dr. David Mamo in 2006 to study L-Stepholidine. The work they would do would be built up from previous knowledge of the drug already known. They conducted preclinical studies in rats and it showed to be a very promising compound. The goal then was to give it to humans and measure its D2 backrest in an attempt at showing it indeed is a D2 drug in vivo using PET, and also estimate its expected therapeutic dose for coming(prenominal) clinical studies. Having had several correspondences Dr Mamo, he has informed me that the main company in China had stopped the production of Stepholidine and for ensuring that the compound is pure without any contaminants and to assure the topical anaesthetic regulatory authority the research was a safe study, they decided not to use stepholidine from China. Dr Kapur and Dr Mamo then collaborated with a chemist to synthesize stepholidine in a lab. tax write-off was fine, but the problem was that they couldnt scale up the production to gram scale. A chemist had told him with further work, production was possible, but the SMRI was not willing to wait for this. The patronage had to be given up but not for the reason that the drug wasnt showing promise.Another drawback in stepholidine is its bioavailability. Drugs given orally, acting on the central nervous system, should have good bioavailability and good countercurrent brain barrier penetration. In rat based assays, it was seen that stepholidine, when administered orally, was abjectly available t o systemic circulation but could cross the blood brain barrier easily, resulting in good entry into the brain. Stepholidine was also found to have good permeability of the membrane that was not affected by outpouring transporters such as P-gp or MRP2. Stepholidine which was absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract was also rapidly eliminated by glucuronidation of phenolic hydroxyl group, and less by sulphation, methylation, demethylation and /or N-oxidation. This poor bioavailability achieved by stepholidine could be due to the extensive pre systemic metabolism. A way to overcome this would be to develop pro-drugs, which would be chemically modified versions of stepholidine which will tolerate enzymatic or chemical transformation for the active drug to be released. Example of this might be to modify the hydroxyl groups of stepholidine. (Sun et al. 2009)Due to its poor bioavailability, there has been significant development in recently towards the modification of stepholidine by de velopment of series of derivatives. One derivative that has improved bioavailability while maintain the pharmacological properties of stepholidine, is bi-acetylated l-stepholidine.In recent times, although there has been an increase in material prosperity and growing success of traditional western medication, there has been an overall increase in psychotic disorders especially schizophrenia. Psychiatric patients not only want their symptoms to disappear, they also want to continue to lead a normal life without all their troubles. Psychiatric patients have better resources for the treatment now than ever before, but due to frequent disappointments in western medication especially due to its side effects there has been increased growth of alternative and complementary methods in the treatment of patients. Sometimes patients also seek help from spell breakers, exorcists and herbalists.In recent times, according to the area Health Organisation (WHO) approximately 80% of people in the w orld have relied on herbs in satisfying their medical care needs, and developed countries such as Germany, Italy and even the USA have shown a dramatic increase in herbal medicine consumption.Stepholidine had led the way in recent drug discovery with it being both a D1 receptor agonist and D2 receptor antagonist activity. This is a unique pharmacological characteristic of DH-THPBs (dihydro) and will be critical in the future when developing new antipsychotic drugs. More so, another DH-THPB, 12-chloroscoulerine has been found to have more potent dual action than stepholidine.In this project, I will analyse research done with stepholidine in regards to it being a therapeutic tool in the treatment of schizophrenia.Word count 2,992

The Us Is Murdering The Iraqis Essay -- essays research papers

The US is Murdering The IraqisEach day we eat collar meals a day, sometimes more. We listen to music, drive in our cars, or play on our high-tech computers. Some may pick up the newspaper, but other than those few words on the page, the American state is living a liveliness of excess. Excess that is at the expense of other plentys lives. The American people take pride in the capitalistic democracy that is a model for the other countries, but they forget to watch the government. They dont even know what their government is doing. For years now people on the street curse and adjure death upon the ibn Talal Hussein Hussein. He has been given titles such as the devils son because the media has told all of the horrible things he has done. The media has shown how he is killing his own people for power. The endeavor for power is killing the people of Iraq, but it is not their own government who is fighting for this power, it is the only remaining world super power, the United States of America, fighting unceasingly to hold on to its domination.It is a ritual of the United States to stop any country from taking our power. The government allow destroy any way of life sentence that may take away from the policy of democratic promotion, for the US is the model of such a way of life. If that role was threatened then their power would be threatened. This is shown in the history Iraq and U.S. relations from 1972 on. In 1972, Iraq began to nationalize its oil large amounts of money where now coming into the country. Saddam was using this money to aid his people in a way no other country ever has. A free education system was set up for everyone in the country, from the similar of kindergarten to college or professional school. There was free housing for everyone. There was also a medical system that was free for Iraq people, while for non-citizens, it was about three dollars. This three dollars was for everything, from strepp throat to heart surgery. All of this im proved the quality of life for the people of Iraq. The infant mortality decreased and people were living longer and better lives. Saddam oversaw all of this and his people loved him. But the United States government felt that Saddam and Iraq were growing too powerful in the sensitive Middle atomic number 99 region, and thus began a series of attempts to weaken their power. 1972 is when the U.S. put Iraq on the list of terrorist nations. T... ...ty, behind all the highly confidential, top secret files, they plan to trap these countries chthonian their control while furthering their own power and well being. Children and people of all ages are dying at this moment in Iraq, so that we, the people in America, can live a life of abundant materialism. This is just one country in the world, there are sure to be others in the past, bring in and the time to come, that will suffer and die at the mercy of the United States of America. Yet people are too concerned with the trivial things of their daily life to take interest in the government that is killing people and destroying cultures. The United States of America is supposed to have the government of the people, so unless we, the people do something, we will continue to be the murderers of innocent people.All of the information in this paper came from Father Harring. He had traveled to Iraq and is working with the Voices in the Wilderness organization to help the people in Iraq. He quit his job as a professor in Connecticutto work full time with the organization. He gave the speech on Iraq sanctions (because Father Gumbleton had been hospitalized and was still ill) in October 1999.

Southwestern Ohio Steel Company Essay -- Business Ohio Steel Company E

Southwestern Ohio Steel Company Southwestern Ohio Steel Limited Partnership (SOSLP) was considered to be one of the industry leaders in engineering science and service. SOSLP sells to approximately 500 customers, twenty five of which produces about two-thirds of the companys sales. Dan Wilson, vice president of sales at SOSLP, had recently received a letter from Matworks requesting SOSLP to provide sponsorship for an future Matworks annual sales concussion. Dan needed to decide if providing sponsorship was feasible keeping in mind that Matworks had been a long standing customer of SOSLP while also subtle that gifts were no longer a custom in the steel industry.Wilson should not offer to sponsor the annual sales meeting as this would not accompany with company and industry situations.In earlier days, ?wining and dining? the customer had been a part of the steel industry and adjusted as a cost of doing business. that recently government regulations had restricted this method of d oing business and now ?buying? business was just not a part of the industry. Sponsoring the annual sales meeting does not comply with the present business ethics and SOSLP could risk hurting their image and losing respect in the marketplace. Matworks at one time had been one of SOSLP?s best customers and bought almost exclusively from the company. Over the past few years they had run into financial trouble and thus were not buying as much. They had bypast from being in the top ten best cus...